The Project Gutenberg EBook of Byzantine Churches in Constantinople, by Alexander Van Millingen and Ramsay Traquair and W. S. George and A. E. Henderson

The Project Gutenberg EBook of Byzantine Churches in Constantinople, by
Alexander Van Millingen and Ramsay Traquair and W. S. George and A. E. Henderson
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Title: Byzantine Churches in Constantinople
Their History and Architecture
Author: Alexander Van Millingen
Ramsay Traquair
W. S. George
A. E. Henderson

Release Date: June 9, 2009 [EBook #29077]
Language: English
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BYZANTINE CHURCHES
IN CONSTANTINOPLE
MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO
DALLAS · SAN FRANCISCO
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
TORONTO
[Illustration: PLATE I.
MEDIAEVAL MAP OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY BONDELMONTIUS.
_Frontispiece._]
NOTE ON THE MAP OF CONSTANTINOPLE
For the map forming the frontispiece and the following note I am greatly
indebted to Mr. F. W. Hasluck, of the British School at Athens.
The map is taken from the unpublished _Insularium Henrici
Martelli Germani_ (_B.M. Add. MSS._ 15,760) f. 40.
A short note on the MS., which may be dated approximately
1490, is given in the _Annual of the British School at
Athens_, xii. 199.
The map of Constantinople is a derivative of the
Buondelmontius series, which dates from 1420, and forms the
base of all known maps prior to the Conquest.
Buondelmontius’ map of Constantinople has been published
from several MSS., varying considerably in legend and other
details:[1] the best account of these publications is to be
found in E. Oberhummer’s _Konstantinopel unter Suleiman dem
Grossen_, pp. 18 ff. The map in B.M. _Arundel_, 93, has
since been published in _Annual B.S.A._ xii. pl. i.
In the present map the legends are as follows. Those marked
with a dagger do not occur on hitherto published maps.
Reference is made below to the Paris MS. (best published by Oberhummer,
_loc. cit._), the Venetian (Mordtmann, _Esquisse_, p. 45, Sathas,
[Greek: Mnêmeia], iii., frontispiece), and the Vatican (Mordtmann, _loc.
cit._ p. 73).
TRACIE PARS–GALATHA OLIM NVNC PERA–Pera–S.
Dominicus–Arcena–Introitus Euxini Maris.
ASIE MINORIS PARS NVNC TVRCHIA.–TVRCHIA.
Tracie pars–Porta Vlacherne–[Symbol: cross] Ab hec (_sic_)
porta Vlacherne usque ad portam Sancti Demetri 6 M.P. et
centum et decem turres–[Symbol: cross] Porta S.
Iohannis[1]–Porta Chamici[2]–Porta Crescu–Porta
Crescea–[Symbol: cross] Ab hec (_sic_) porta que dicitur
Crescea usque ad portam Sancti Demetri septem M. passuum et
turres centum nonaginta octo. Et ad portam Vlacherne 5 M.
passuum et turres nonaginta sex–Receptaculum
Conticasii[3]-Porta olim palacii Imperatoris–Porta S.
Dimitri–Iudee[4]–Pistarie p.[5]–Messi p.–Cheone
p.[6]–S. Andreas–S. Iohannes de Petra–Hic Constantinus
genuflexus–[Symbol: cross] Ad S. Salvatorem–[Symbol:
cross] Columna Co(n)s?–Hic Iustinianus in equo[7]–Sancta
Sophia–Hippodromus–S. Demetrius–S. Georgius-S.
Lazarus–Domus Pape–Domus S. Constantini–Sanctorum
Apostolorum–Porta antiquissima mire (_sic_) arte
constructa[8]–S. Marta[9]–S. Andreas–S. Iohannes de
Studio–Perleftos.


F. W. H.
[1] S. Romani?
[2] Porta Camidi, _Vat._
[3] Receptaculum fustarum dein Condoscalli, _Par._
[4] Porta Judea, _Par._
[5] Porta Piscarii, _Par._
[6] Porta Lacherne, _Par._, delle Corne, Vat., del Chinigo (i.e.
[Greek: Kynêgiou]) in the xvi. cent. Venetian maps.
[7] Theodosius in aequo eneo, _Ven._ In hoc visus imp. Teod. equo
sedens, _Vat._
[8] Porta antiquissima pulcra, _Par._
[9] St. Ma[=m] (as?) _Ven._ Sts. Marcus, _Vat._
BYZANTINE CHURCHES
IN CONSTANTINOPLE
THEIR HISTORY AND ARCHITECTURE
BY
ALEXANDER VAN MILLINGEN, M.A., D.D.
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, ROBERT COLLEGE, CONSTANTINOPLE
AUTHOR OF ‘BYZANTINE CONSTANTINOPLE,’ ‘CONSTANTINOPLE’
ASSISTED BY
RAMSAY TRAQUAIR, A.R.I.B.A.
LECTURER ON ARCHITECTURE, COLLEGE OF ART, EDINBURGH
W. S. GEORGE, A.R.C.A., AND A. E. HENDERSON, F.S.A.
WITH MAPS, PLANS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS
MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON
1912
COPYRIGHT
PREFACE
This volume is a sequel to the work I published, several years ago,
under the title, _Byzantine Constantinople: the Walls of the City, and
adjoining Historical Sites_. In that work the city was viewed, mainly,
as the citadel of the Roman Empire in the East, and the bulwark of
civilization for more than a thousand years. But the city of Constantine
was not only a mighty fortress. It was, moreover, the centre of a great
religious community, which elaborated dogmas, fostered forms of piety,
and controlled an ecclesiastical administration that have left a
profound impression upon the thought and life of mankind. New Rome was a
Holy City. It was crowded with churches, hallowed, it was believed, by
the remains of the apostles, prophets, saints, and martyrs of the
Catholic Church; shrines at which men gathered to worship, from near and
far, as before the gates of heaven. These sanctuaries were, furthermore,
constructed and beautified after a fashion which marks a distinct and
important period in the history of art, and have much to interest the
artist and the architect. We have, consequently, reasons enough to
justify our study of the churches of Byzantine Constantinople.
Of the immense number of the churches which once filled the city but a
small remnant survives. Earthquakes, fires, pillage, neglect, not to
speak of the facility with which a Byzantine structure could be shorn of
its glory, have swept the vast majority off the face of the earth,
leaving not a rack behind. In most cases even the sites on which they
stood cannot be identified. The places which knew them know them no
more. Scarcely a score of the old churches of the city are left to us,
all with one exception converted into mosques and sadly altered. The
visitor must, therefore, be prepared for disappointment. Age is not
always a crown of glory; nor does change of ownership and adaptation to
different ideas and tastes necessarily conduce to improvement. We are
not looking at flowers in their native clime or in full bloom, but at
flowers in a herbarium so to speak, or left to wither and decay. As we
look upon them we have need of imagination to see in faded colours the
graceful forms and brilliant hues which charmed and delighted the eyes
of men in other days.
In the preparation of this work I have availed myself of the aid
afforded by previous students in the same field of research, and I have
gratefully acknowledged my debt to them whenever there has been occasion
to do so. At the same time this is a fresh study of the subject, and has
been made with the hope of confirming what is true, correcting mistakes,
and gathering additional information. Attention has been given to both
the history and the architecture of these buildings. The materials for
the former are, unfortunately, all too scanty. No continuous records of
any of these churches exist. A few incidents scattered over wide tracts
of time constitute all that can be known. Still, disconnected incidents
though they be, they give us glimpses of the characteristic thoughts
and feelings of a large mass of our humanity during a long period of
history.
The student of the architecture of these churches likewise labours under
serious disadvantages. Turkish colour-wash frequently conceals what is
necessary for a complete survey; while access to the higher parts of a
building by means of scaffolding or ladders is often impossible under
present circumstances. Hence the architect cannot always speak
positively, and must leave many an interesting point in suspense.
Care has been taken to distinguish the original parts of a building from
alterations made in Byzantine days or since the Turkish conquest; while,
by the prominence given to the variety of type which the churches
present, the life and movement observable in Byzantine ecclesiastical
art has been made clear, and the common idea that it was a stereotyped
art has been proved to be without foundation.
Numerous references to the church of S. Sophia occur in the course of
this volume, but the reader will not find that great monument of
Byzantine architectural genius dealt with in the studies here offered.
The obstacles in the way of a proper treatment of that subject proved
insuperable, while the writings of Salzenberg, Lethaby, and Swainson,
and especially the splendid and exhaustive monograph of my friend Mr. E.
M. Antoniadi, seemed to make any attempt of mine in the same direction
superfluous if not presumptuous. The omission will, however, secure one
advantage: the churches actually studied will not be overshadowed by the
grandeur of the ‘Great Church,’ but will stand clear before the view in
all the light that beats upon them.
I recall gratefully my obligations to the Sultan’s Government and to
the late Sir Nicholas O’Conor, British Ambassador at Constantinople, for
permission to make a scientific examination of the churches of the city.
To the present British Ambassador, Sir Gerard Lowther, best thanks are
due for the facilities enjoyed in the study of the church of S. Irene.
I have been exceedingly fortunate in the architects who have given me
the benefit of their professional knowledge and skill in the execution
of my task, and I beg that their share in this work should be recognized
and appreciated as fully as it deserves. To the generosity of the
British School at Athens I am indebted for being able to secure the
services of Mr. Ramsay Traquair, Associate of the Royal Institute of
British Architects and Lecturer on Architecture at the College of Art in
Edinburgh. Mr. Traquair spent three months in Constantinople for the
express purpose of collecting the materials for the plans,
illustrations, and notes he has contributed to this work. The chapter on
Byzantine Architecture is entirely from his pen. He has also described
the architectural features of most of the churches; but I have
occasionally introduced information from other sources, or given my own
personal observations.
I am likewise under deep obligation to Mr. A. E. Henderson, F.S.A., for
the generous kindness with which he has allowed me to reproduce his
masterly plans of the churches of SS. Sergius and Bacchus, S. Mary
Panachrantos, and many of his photographs and drawings of other churches
in the city. I am, moreover, indebted to the Byzantine Research and
Publication Fund for courteous permission to present here some of the
results of the splendid work done by Mr. W. S. George, F.S.A., under
unique circumstances, in the study of the church of S. Irene, and I
thank Mr. George personally for the cordial readiness with which he
consented to allow me even to anticipate his own monograph on that very
interesting fabric. It is impossible to thank Professor Baldwin Brown,
of the University of Edinburgh, enough, for his unfailing kindness
whenever I consulted him in connection with my work. Nor do I forget how
much I owe to J. Meade Falkner, Esq., for kindly undertaking the irksome
task of revising the proofs of the book while going through the press.
I cannot close without calling attention to the brighter day which has
dawned on the students of the antiquities of Constantinople since
constitutional government has been introduced in the Ottoman Empire.
Permission to carry on excavations in the city has been promised me. The
archaeology of New Rome only waits for wealthy patrons to enable it to
reach a position similar to that occupied by archaeological research in
other centres of ancient and mediaeval civilizations. But the monuments
of the olden time are perishable. Of the churches described by Paspates
in his _Byzantine Studies_, published in 1877, nine have either entirely
disappeared or lost more of their original features. It was no part of
wisdom to let the books of the cunning Sibyl become rarer and knowledge
poorer by neglecting to secure all that was obtainable when she made her
first or even her second offer.
ALEXANDER VAN MILLINGEN.
ROBERT COLLEGE, CONSTANTINOPLE.
[Greek: Polis ekklêsiôn galouche, pisteôs archêge, orthodoxias podêge.]
NICETAS CHONIATES.
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER I
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE 1
CHAPTER II
CHURCH OF S. JOHN THE BAPTIST OF THE STUDION 35
CHAPTER III
CHURCH OF SS. SERGIUS AND BACCHUS 62
CHAPTER IV
CHURCH OF S. IRENE 84
CHAPTER V
CHURCH OF S. ANDREW IN KRISEI 106
CHAPTER VI
CHURCH OF S. MARY PANACHRANTOS 122
CHAPTER VII
CHURCH OF S. MARY PAMMAKARISTOS 138
CHAPTER VIII
CHURCH OF S. THEODOSIA 164
CHAPTER IX
CHURCH OF S. MARY DIACONISSA 183
CHAPTER X
CHURCH OF SS. PETER AND MARK 191
CHAPTER XI
CHURCH OF THE MYRELAION 196
CHAPTER XII
CHURCH OF S. JOHN THE BAPTIST IN TRULLO 201
CHAPTER XIII
CHURCH OF S. THEKLA 207
CHAPTER XIV
CHURCH OF S. SAVIOUR PANTEPOPTES 212
CHAPTER XV
CHURCH OF S. SAVIOUR PANTOKRATOR 219
CHAPTER XVI
CHURCH OF S. THEODORE 243
CHAPTER XVII
MONASTERY OF MANUEL 253
CHAPTER XVIII
MONASTIR MESJEDI 262
CHAPTER XIX
BALABAN AGA MESJEDI 265
CHAPTER XX
CHURCH OF THE GASTRIA 268
CHAPTER XXI
CHURCH OF S. MARY OF THE MONGOLS 272
CHAPTER XXII
BOGDAN SERAI 280
CHAPTER XXIII
CHURCH OF S. SAVIOUR IN THE CHORA 288
CHAPTER XXIV
MOSAICS AND FRESCOES IN THE CHURCH OF S. SAVIOUR IN
THE CHORA 321
CHAPTER XXV
DATING AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHURCHES 332
BIBLIOGRAPHY 337
LIST OF EMPERORS 341
INDEX 343
PLANS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. Kasr Ibn Wardan 4
2. Deré Aghsy 6
3. Deré Aghsy (Section) 6
4. S. Nicholas, Myra 7
5. Church of the Koimesis, Nicaea 8
6. Church of the Koimesis, Nicaea (Section) 9
7. Map of Byzantine Constantinople _facing_ 15
8. The Saucer Dome or Dome-Vault 16
9. The Dome on Pendentives 16
10. The Drum Dome 17
11. Diagram of Vaulting in Outer Narthex of S. Saviour
in the Chora. 22
CHURCH OF S. JOHN THE BAPTIST OF THE STUDION
12. Plan of the Church 56
13. Long Section 57
14. Cross Section, looking east 58
15. Cross Section, looking west 58
16. Elevation of the Narthex 59
17. Longitudinal Section of western portion of the
Nave–Half-cross Section of the Nave 59
18. Details of the Narthex, Colonnade, Doors, Windows 60
19. Details of Doors; Details from Church of S. Theodore;
Details from S. Saviour in the Chora 61
CHURCH OF SS. SERGIUS AND BACCHUS
20. Inscription on the Frieze in the Church 74
21. Exterior View of the Dome 77
22. Brick Stamps in the Church 79
23. Ground Plan (looking up) 80
24. Gynaeceum Plan (looking up) 80
25. Plan at base of Dome (Cross Section) 81
26. Transverse Section 81
27. Section through South Aisle 81
28. Constructive Section of the Interior Arrangement,
showing Gynaeceum Floor, Vaulting, Roof, and
Springing of Dome 82
29. Constructive Section of the Rear, with Gynaeceum,
Floor, and Roof removed 82
30. Sections of Mouldings 83
CHURCH OF S. IRENE
31. Ground Plan of the Atrium and Church _facing_ 104
32. Gallery Plan ” 104
33. Longitudinal Section ” 104
34. South Elevation ” 104
35. West Elevation ” 105
CHURCH OF S. ANDREW IN KRISEI
36. Plan of the Church (restored) 118
37. Plan of the Church 119
38, 39. Longitudinal Sections 120
40. Isometrical Section (restored) 121
CHURCH OF S. MARY PANACHRANTOS
41. Details of the Shafts in East Windows of South
Church 124
42. Inscription on Apse of North Church 131
43. Plan of the Church (conjectural) 135
44. Plan of the Church 135
45. Section through the North Church 135
46. Section through the South Church 135
CHURCH OF S. MARY PAMMAKARISTOS
47. Plan of the Church (conjectural) 152
48. Brick Details from the Parecclesion 154
49. Inscribed String-course on Apse of the Parecclesion 157
50. Plan of the Church–Plan of the Parecclesion–Plan
of the Gynaeceum in the Parecclesion _facing_ 160
51. Cross Section of the Church, looking east 161
52. The Parecclesion, east end of south side 162
53. Sections in the Parecclesion–Plan of Dome in the
Gynaeceum 163
CHURCH OF S. THEODOSIA
54. Interior of the Church, looking west 171
55. Details from the Church–Details from Church of S.
Theodore–Capital and Shaft found near Unkapan
Gate 174
56. Ground Plan 179
57. Plan of the Gynaeceum 180
58. Section in the Gynaeceum 181
59. Longitudinal Section of the Church 181
60. Isometrical Section, showing scheme 182
CHURCH OF S. MARY DIACONISSA
61. Plan of the Church 189
62. Longitudinal Section 190
CHURCH OF SS. PETER AND MARK
63. Font in the street to the west of the Church–A
Window in S. Saviour in the Chora 194
64. Plan of the Church 195
65. Longitudinal Section 195
CHURCH OF THE MYRELAION
66. Plan of the Church 200
67. Longitudinal Section 200
CHURCH OF S. JOHN THE BAPTIST IN TRULLO
68. Details from the Church–Details from the
Pammakaristos–Details from the Pantepoptes 203
69. Details from S. Andrew in Krisei–Details from
the Chora 204
70. Plan of S. John in Trullo–Longitudinal
Section–Plan of the Dome 206
CHURCH OF S. THEKLA
71. Plan of the Church–Cross Section 206
CHURCH OF S. SAVIOUR PANTEPOPTES
72. Sketches from the Church 213
73. Plan of the Church–Longitudinal Section 217
74. Details from the Church 218
CHURCH OF S. SAVIOUR PANTOKRATOR
75. Details from the Church–Details from S. Saviour
Pantepoptes 225
76. Inlaid Marble Pavement in the Pantokrator–Tile
Pavement in the Gallery of S. Theodosia 234
77. Plan of the Pantokrator _facing_ 240
78. Longitudinal Section through the North Church 241
79. Longitudinal Section through the Central Church 241
80. Longitudinal Section through the South Church 242
CHURCH OF S. THEODORE
81. Details from the Church 245
82. Plan of the Church by Texier 249
83. Part of South Elevation showing the Side Chapel by
Texier 249
84. Plan of the Church 251
85. Longitudinal Section 251
86. Front Elevation–Half-Plan of Central Dome in
the Narthex 252
87. South Elevation and Section through Vaulted Bay of
Narthex–Half-Plan of Central Dome 252
MONASTERY OF MANUEL
88. Plan of the Refectory 261
MONASTIR MESJEDI
89. Plan of the Church–Cross Section 261
BALABAN MESJEDI
90. Plan of the Building 267
91. Section 267
CHURCH OF THE GASTRIA
92. Plan of the Church 267
CHURCH OF S. MARY OF THE MONGOLS
93. Exterior View 273
94. Interior View 274
95. The Dome (Interior View) 276
96. Plan of Church 279
97. Plan of S. Nicholas Methana 279
BOGDAN SERAI
98. Plan of Upper Chapel–Half-Section of
Apse–Half-Section of East End–Longitudinal
Section 287
CHURCH OF S. SAVIOUR IN THE CHORA
99. Details from the Church 305
100. Details of a Window in the Gallery 309
101. Plan of S. Sophia, Salonica 313
102. Plan of the Chora (restored) 314
103. Bay in the Chora (restored) 315
104. Plan of Church of the Archangels, Sygé 316
105. Plan of the Chora and the Parecclesion 317
106. Cross Section, looking west 318
107. Plan of Upper Gallery 318
108. Section through Church 319
109. Section through Chapel 319
110. Plan of Dome 320
111. Section through Inner Narthex 320
112. Plan of Gallery between the Church and
the Parecclesion 320
113. Section of North Gallery 320
114. Plan of the Narthexes, indicating the positions
of their Mosaics 321
115. Model of the Church in the Mosaic over Main Door
in the Inner Narthex 326
116. Plan of the Parecclesion, indicating positions
of its Frescoes 328
PLATES
I. Mediaeval Map of Constantinople by
Bondelmontius _Frontispiece_
FACING PAGE
II. The Myrelaion (since it was burned).
(1) From the north-west.
(2) From the south-east 20
III. (1) The Myrelaion (since it was burned).
The Interior, looking east.
(2) Suleiman Aga Mesjedi 24
IV. (1) Bracket in S. Saviour in the Chora.
(2) Sculptured Slab in S. Theodore.
(3) S. Mary Diaconissa. Heads of Windows in south
arm.
(4) Sculptured Slab on the West Wall 28
CHURCH OF S. JOHN OF THE STUDION
V. (1) The Ruined Interior, seen from the minaret of the
mosque.
(2) The West Side of the Church 36
VI. (1) Façade of the Narthex.
(2) The Ruined Interior, at the West End of the North
Side 40
VII. (1) Entablature and Anta Capital in the Narthex.
(2) Cornice in the Narthex, looking up 44
VIII. The Church from the south-east 48
IX. (1) The East End of the Church.
(2) East End of the North Side of the Church 52
X. (1) The Cistern beside the Church.
(2) Another View of the same 54
THE CHURCH OF SS. SERGIUS AND BACCHUS
XI. The Interior of the Church, looking north-west 62
XII. (1) A Capital in the Church.
(2) A Capital in the Narthex of S. John of the Studion 66
XIII. (1) The Church from the south-east.
(2) View in the Gallery over the Narthex 70
XIV. (1) The Interior of the Church, looking north-east.
(2) Portion of the Entablature in the Church 74
XV. The Baptistery of the Church of S. Sophia.
(1) The Exterior from the north-east.
(2) The Interior of the Dome, showing Continuous
Pendentives 76
THE CHURCH OF S. IRENE
XVI. The Church from the south-east 84
XVII. (1) The South Side.
(2) The North Side 86
XVIII. The Interior, looking east 90
XIX. (1) Vaulting at the north-western Corner of the
Atrium.
(2) The Northern Arch of the Main Dome, seen from
the South Gallery 92
XX. (1) Mosaic in the Soffit of an Arch.
(2) Portion of the Mosaic Inscription on the Outer
Arch of the Apse 96
XXI. (1) The Interior, looking west.
(2) The Door at the East End of the North Aisle 98
XXII. (1) Vaulting over the South Aisle.
(2) A Compartment of Vaulting in South Aisle,
looking up 100
XXIII. (1) A Capital in the South Arcade.
(2) Base of a Column in the South Aisle 102
THE CHURCH OF S. ANDREW IN KRISEI
XXIV. The East End of the Church 106
XXV. (1) The Church from the south-west.
(2) The Interior, looking south 108
XXVI. (1) A Capital in the Inner Narthex.
(2) A Capital in the Arcade under the West Dome
Arch 110
XXVII. (1) A Capital in the Outer Narthex.
(2) A Capital in the Outer Narthex 112
XXVIII. (1) View in the Outer Narthex.
(2) View in the Inner Narthex, looking south 114
XXIX. (1) View in the Cloister.
(2) View in the Courtyard 116
XXX. (1, 2, 3) Three Views of the Decorated Doorway in
the Cloister 118
THE CHURCH OF S. MARY PANACHRANTOS
XXXI. (1) Vault of the Passage on the West of the
Dome in the South Church. (2) The Interior
of the North Church, looking north 122
XXXII. (1) The North Church, looking east.
(2) The North Church, looking west 126
XXXIII. (1) The Diaconicon, looking east.
(2) The Western Dome Arch in the South Church 128
XXXIV. (1) The East Window of the South Church.
(2) The Outer Narthex, looking south 130
XXXV. (1) The East End of the South Church. (2) The
East End of the North Church 132
CHURCH OF S. MARY PAMMAKARISTOS
XXXVI. (1) The Church from the south-east.
(2) The Church from the west 138
XXXVII. (1) The Inner Narthex, looking south.
(2) The Dome, looking west 142
XXXVIII. The Parecclesion from the south-east 144
XXXIX. (1) The East End of the Parecclesion.
(2) The West Column in the Parecclesion 148
XL. (1) The East Column in the Parecclesion.
(2) The Column flanking the East Window in the
Apse of the Parecclesion.
(3) The West Column in the Parecclesion 150
XLI. (1) Interior View of the Dome in the Parecclesion.
(2) Mosaic in the Dome of the Parecclesion 154
XLII. South Side of the Parecclesion 156
CHURCH OF S. THEODOSIA
XLIII. (1) The East End of the Church.
(2) The Church from the south-east 164
XLIV. (1) The Interior, looking north-east.
(2) The Eastern Dome Arch 168
XLV. (1) The Dome over the Stairway to the Galleries.
(2) The Narthex, looking north, and the
Stairway to the Galleries 172
CHURCH OF S. MARY DIACONISSA
XLVI. (1) The North-west Side, seen from the Aqueduct
of Valens. (2) The North Arm, looking east 182
XLVII. (1) The Interior, looking north-east.
(2) The Interior, looking south-east 184
XLVIII. (1) The Lower Part of the North Side of the East
End.
(2) The Upper Part of the North Side of the East End 186
XLIX. (1) South Eikon Frame. (2) Detail in the South
Eikon Frame 188
L. (1) The Interior, looking west.
(2) A Capital on the Column at the Entrance to
the Church 190
CHURCH OF SS. PETER AND MARK
LI. (1) The Church from the south-east. (2) Font
outside the Church 192
LII. (1) The Dome, looking north.
(2) Looking across the Dome, from the south-west 194
CHURCH OF THE MYRELAION
LIII. (1) The South Side of the Church.
(2) The Narthex, looking north 196
LIV. (1) The Interior, looking east.
(2) The south-west Angle of the Cross 198
LV. (1) S. John in Trullo from the south-west.
(2) The Interior of Balaban Mesjedi 202
LVI. The Church of S. Thekla.
(1) From the north-west.
(2) The East End 208
THE CHURCH OF S. SAVIOUR PANTEPOPTES
LVII. (1) Door leading from the Outer to the Inner
Narthex.
(2) The Dome, looking west 212
LVIII. (1) Decoration in Brick on the Exterior of the
South Wall.
(2) Bracket in the Parecclesion of
S. Mary Pammakaristos 214
CHURCH OF S. SAVIOUR PANTOKRATOR
LIX. The Church from the west 220
LX. (1) The Church from the north-west.
(2) Fragments of Sculptured Marbles found in
the Church 222
LXI. (1) Interior of the South Church, looking east.
(2) The Southern Arm of the Church 224
LXII. (1) Entrance from the Narthex to the South Church.
(2) Interior, looking from the South Church
through into the North Church 226
LXIII. (1) The Gallery in the North Church, looking
south. (2) Interior of the North Church,
looking east 228
LXIV. (1) Arch in the North Wall of the South Church,
seen from the South Church, looking north.
(2) Arch in the North Wall of the South Church,
seen from the Central Church, looking south 230
LXV. (1) Narthex of the North Church, looking north.
(2) Outer Narthex of the South Church, looking
north 232
LXVI. (1) South Bay in the Gallery of the South Church.
(2) View in the North Church, looking south 234
LXVII. (1) The Pulpit in the South Church.
(2) West Side of the Central Bay in the Gallery of
the South Church 236
LXVIII. (1) Interior of the East Dome in the Central
Church.
(2) Interior of the Dome in the South Church,
looking north 238
LXIX. (1) The East End from the south.
(2) East Window of the Central Church.
(3) The East End from the north 242
CHURCH OF S. THEODORE
LXX. (1) The North End of the Western Façade.
(2) The Church from the north-west 244
LXXI. (1) The Central Dome from the south. (2) The
Western Façade from the south 246
LXXII. (1) The South Cross Arm (exterior) from
the south-east. (2) The East End from
the south 248
LXXIII. (1) The Capital on the Southernmost Column
in the Façade.
(2) Capital in the Façade 250
LXXIV. (1) The Outer Narthex, looking north.
(2) Capital on the North Side of the Door
leading from the Outer to the Inner
Narthex 254
LXXV. (1) The Interior, looking east.
(2) The Interior (upper part), looking east 256
THE REFECTORY OF THE MONASTERY OF MANUEL
LXXVI. (1) From the west.
(2) From the south-east 258
LXXVII. Cistern of Aetius 262
CHURCH OF THE GASTRIA
LXXVIII. (1) The Church from the east.
(2) The Entrance 268
LXXIX. (1) The Church from the west. (2) The Interior 270
BOGDAN SERAI
LXXX. (1) The Apse in the Upper Chapel.
(2) A Pendentive of the Dome.
(3) The Chapel, from the north-west 280
CHURCH OF S. SAVIOUR IN THE CHORA
LXXXI. (1) The Church from the west.
(2) The Church from the south-east 288
LXXXII. (1) The Church from the north-east.
(2) The North Side of the Church 292
LXXXIII. (1) The Inner Narthex, looking south.
(2) Another View of the same 296
LXXXIV. (1) A Capital in the Outer Narthex.
(2) Another Capital in the Outer Narthex 300
LXXXV. (1) The Interior, looking north-west.
(2) The Outer Narthex, looking south 304
LXXXVI. (1) The Eikon Frame on the South-eastern Pier.
(2) The Interior, looking east 308
LXXXVII. (1) The Cornice above the Main Door (on the
Interior).
(2) The Archivolt on the North Wall of the
Parecclesion.
(3) Window Heads in the Central Apse 310
LXXXVIII. (1) The East End of the Parecclesion. (2) A Capital
at the Entrance to the Parecclesion 314
LXXXIX. (1) The Parecclesion, looking south-east.
(2) The Parecclesion, looking west 316
XC. (1) Mosaic representing the Miracle of Water turned
into Wine.
(2) Mosaic representing Mary caressed by her parents,
and blessed by priests seated at a banquet 322
XCI. (1) Mosaic representing the Registration of Mary
and Joseph at Bethlehem.
(2) Mosaic representing Theodore Metochites offering
the Church to Christ 326
XCII. The Archivolt on the South Wall of the Parecclesion,
with the Epitaph in honour of Tornikes 330
CHAPTER I
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE
I. PLANNING
At the beginning of the fifth century, which is a suitable point from
which to date the rise of Byzantine architecture, three principal types
of church plan prevailed in the Roman world:–
I. The Basilica: an oblong hall divided into nave and aisles, and roofed
in wood, as in the Italian and Salonican examples, or with stone
barrel-vaults, as in Asia Minor and Central Syria.
II. The Octagonal or Circular plan covered with a stone or brick dome, a
type which may be subdivided according as (1) the dome rests upon the
outer walls of the building, or (2) on columns or piers surrounded by an
ambulatory.
The Pantheon and the so-called Temple of Minerva Medica at Rome are
early examples of the first variety, the first circular, the second a
decagon in plan. S. George at Salonica is a later circular example. An
early instance of the second variety is found in S. Constanza at Rome,
and a considerable number of similar churches occur in Asia Minor,
dating from the time of Constantine the Great or a little later.
III. The Cross plan. Here we have a square central area covered by a
dome, from which extend four vaulted arms constituting a cross. This
type also assumes two distinct forms:
(1) Buildings in which the ground plan is cruciform, so that the cross
shows externally at the ground level. Churches of this class are usually
small, and were probably sepulchral chapels rather than churches for
public worship. A good example is the tomb of Galla Placidia at Ravenna.
(2) In the second form of the Cross church the cross is enclosed within
a square, and appears only above the roofs of the angle chambers. An
example is seen in the late Roman tomb at Kusr en Nûeijîs in Eastern
Palestine. In this instance the central square area is covered with a
dome on continuous pendentives; the four arms have barrel-vaults, and
the angles of the cross are occupied by small chambers, which bring the
ground-plan to the square. The building is assigned to the second
century, and shows that true though continuous pendentives were known at
an early date[10] (Fig. 8).
Another example is the Praetorium at Musmiyeh, in Syria,[11] which
probably dates from between 160 and 169 A.D. At some later time it was
altered to a church, and by a curious foreshadowing of the late
Byzantine plan the walls of the internal cross have entirely disappeared
from the ground-plan. The dome rests on four columns placed at the inner
angles of the cross, and the vaulted cross arms rest on lintels spanning
the space between the columns and the outer walls.
From these three types of building are derived the various schemes on
which the churches of the Byzantine Empire were planned.
Of the basilican form the only example in Constantinople that retains
its original plan is S. John the Baptist of the Studion (p. 56), erected
_c._ 463 A.D.
The church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus (p. 70) and the baptistery of S.
Sophia (p. 78) represent respectively the two varieties of the octagonal
plan. In the former the dome rests on piers surrounded by an ambulatory;
in the latter the dome rests upon the outer walls of the buildings. Both
are foundations of Justinian the Great.
Of the Cross church plan showing the cross externally at the ground
level no example survives in the city. But at least one church of that
form was seen at Constantinople in the case of the church of the Holy
Apostles. This was essentially a mausoleum, built originally by
Constantine the Great and reconstructed by Justinian to contain the
sarcophagi of the sovereigns and the patriarchs of New Rome.[12]
The church of S. Mark at Venice was built on the plan of the Holy
Apostles. It is a cruciform church with aisles, but the galleries which
might have been expected above them are omitted. The central dome rests
on four piers, and four smaller domes cover the arms.
Professor Strzygowski gives examples of cross-planned cells in the
catacombs of Palmyra,[13] and in many Eastern rock tombs.[14] Such cross
plans are found also in the Roman catacombs. These subterranean chapels,
of course, do not show the external treatment, yet there can be little
doubt that the external cross plan was originally sepulchral, and owes
its peculiar system of planning to that fact. On the other hand, it was
adopted in such churches as S. Mark’s at Venice and in the French
examples of Périgord for aesthetic or traditional reasons.
In passing now to a consideration of the distinct forms developed from
these pre-Byzantine types of church building, the classification adopted
by Professor Strzygowski may be followed. In his _Kleinasien_ he has
brought forward a series of buildings which show the manner in which a
dome was fitted to the oblong basilica, producing the domed basilica
(_Kuppelbasilica_), an evolution which he regards as Hellenistic and
Eastern. In contrast to this, Strzygowski distinguishes the domed cross
church (_Kreuzkuppelkirche_), of which S. Theodosia in Constantinople
(p. 170) is the typical example and which is a Western development. A
comparison of the two forms is of great importance for the study of
certain Constantinople churches.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--KASR IBN WARDAN (Strzygowski).]
The domed basilica, as the name indicates, is a basilica with nave and
aisles, in which a square bay in the centre of the nave is covered by a
dome on pendentives. To north and south, within the arches supporting
the dome, appear the nave and gallery arcades of the basilica; and as
the galleried basilica is a usual Eastern form galleries are usual in
the domed basilica. As seen from the central area, therefore, the north
and south dome arches are filled in with arcades in two stories, and the
side aisles and galleries are covered with barrel vaults running
parallel to the axis of the church. At the west end a gallery over the
narthex may unite the two side galleries. At Kasr ibn Wardan, instanced
by Strzygowski as a typical domed basilica,[15] there is such a western
gallery (Fig. 1). According to Strzygowski the domed basilica is older
than the fifth century.
The domed basilica remains always an oblong building, and whilst the two
sides to north and south are symmetrical, the western end retains the
basilican characteristics–it has no gallery or arcade communicating
with the central area. The narthex communicates with the nave by doors,
and if a gallery is placed above it, both narthex and gallery are
covered by barrel vaults.
In the domed cross church (_Kreutzküppelkirche_) the central dome rests
on barrel vaults which extend to the outer walls of the building and
form the arms of the cross, the eastern arm forming the bema. The
lighting of the church is by windows in the gable walls which terminate
the north, south, and west cross arms. The prothesis and diaconicon open
off the side arms, and two small chambers in the western angles of the
cross bring the plan externally to the usual rectangular form.
The domed cross church may have galleries, as in S. Theodosia (p. 170),
or may be without them, as in SS. Peter and Mark (p. 193). Where
galleries are present they are placed in the cross arms and are
supported by arcades at the ground level. The vaults beneath the
galleries are cross-groined. The domed cross church is a centrally
planned church, in contrast to the domed basilica, which is oblong, and
therefore we should expect that where galleries are used they will be
formed in all three arms of the cross, as is the case in S. Theodosia.
There are a number of churches which vary from these types, but which
can generally be placed in one class or the other by the consideration
of two main characteristics: if the dome arches extend to the outer
walls the building is a domed cross church; if the galleries are
screened off from the central area by arcades the building is a domed
basilica.
The church at Derè Aghsy,[16] for instance, if we had only the plan to
guide us, would appear to be a typical domed basilica (Fig. 2), but on
examining the section we find that the north and south dome arches
extend over the galleries to the outer walls and form cross arms (Fig.
3). The building is, in fact, a domed cross church with no gallery in
the western arm. Above the narthex at the west end, and separated from
the western cross arm, is a gallery of the type usual in the domed
basilica, so that Derè Aghsy may be regarded as a domed cross church
with features derived from the domed basilica. S. Sophia at
Constantinople, the highest development of the domed basilica, has a
very similar western gallery.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--DERÉ AGHSY (Rott).]
The church of S. Nicholas at Myra[17] (Fig. 4) has a gallery at the west
end, but the cross arms do not appear to be carried over the galleries.
The plan is oblong and the cross-groined vault is not used. The church,
therefore, takes its place as a domed basilica.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--DERÉ AGHSY--SECTION (Rott).]
The church of the Koimesis at Nicaea[18] (Figs. 5 and 6) has no
galleries to the sides. The aisles open into the central area by
arcades, above which are triple windows over the aisle vaults. At the
western end is a gallery above the narthex. The aisles are
barrel-vaulted, and as the church is planned on an axis from east to
west, and is not symmetrical on all three sides, it is regarded as a
domed basilica. It is such a form as might be developed from a basilica
without galleries.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--S. NICHOLAS, MYRA (Rott).]
In Constantinople there are three churches which seem to constitute a
type apart, though resembling in many ways the types just considered.
They are S. Andrew in Krisei, (p. 117), S. Mary Pammakaristos (p. 150),
and S. Mary Panachrantos (p. 130). In these churches, as originally
built, the central dome is carried on four arches which rise above a
one-storied aisle or ambulatory, allowing of windows in the dome arches
on three sides–the eastern dome arch being prolonged to form the bema.
The dome arches have arcades communicating with the ambulatory on the
north, south, and west. The vaulting is executed either with barrel or
with cross-groined vaults. These churches are evidently planned from a
centre, not, like the domed basilicas, from a longitudinal axis. At the
same time the absence of any cross arms differentiates them from the
domed cross churches. S. Andrew, which still retains its western arcade,
dates from at least the sixth century, so that the type was in use
during the great period of Byzantine architecture. Indeed, we should be
inclined to regard S. Andrew as a square form of SS. Sergius and
Bacchus, but without galleries. The type is a natural development from
the octagonal domed church with its surrounding ambulatory.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--THE CHURCH OF THE KOIMESIS, NICAEA (Wulf).]
The typical late Byzantine church is a development from the domed cross
plan. In three examples in Constantinople, S. Theodosia (pp. 170, 172),
S. Mary Diaconissa (p. 185), and SS. Peter and Mark (p. 193), we can
trace the gradual disappearance of the galleries. S. Theodosia, as has
already been mentioned, has galleries in all three cross arms. In S.
Mary Diaconissa they are confined to the four angles between the cross
arms; SS. Peter and Mark is a simple cross plan without galleries. In
later times it became customary to build many small churches, with the
result that the chambers at the angles of the cross, of little account
even in a large church, were now too diminutive to be of any value, and
the question how to provide as much room as possible for the worshippers
became paramount. Accordingly the dome piers were reduced to mere
columns connected with the outer walls of the building by arches; and
thus was produced the typical late Byzantine plan–at the ground level a
square, enclosing four columns; above, a Greek cross with a dome on the
centre.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--THE CHURCH OF THE KOIMESIS, NICAEA (Rott).]
From its distinguishing feature this type has been styled the ‘four
column’ plan. It appears in many Constantinopolitan churches, as, for
example, S. Theodore (p. 248) and S. Saviour Pantepoptes (p. 214). The
cross arms are not always equal, and may be covered with barrel vaults
(p. 214) or with cross-groined vaults (p. 198). The bema is usually a
bay added to the eastern arm. The angle chambers have either
cross-groined vaults or flat dome vaults. In general the churches of
this type in Constantinople do not differ from the numerous churches of
the same class in the provinces.[19]
A lobed cruciform plan is found in only one church in Constantinople,
that of S. Mary of the Mongols (p. 277). Here the central dome is
supported on four piers set across the angles of the square, so that the
pendentives do not come to a point as usual, but spring from the face of
the piers. Against each side of the square a semi-dome is set, thus
producing a quatrefoil plan at the vaulting level.
Both trefoiled and quatrefoiled churches are not uncommon in Armenia,
such as the cathedral at Etschmiadzin;[20] trefoiled churches of a later
date are found in the western provinces, and examples have been
published from Servia,[21] Salonica,[22] and Greece.[23]
An unusual form of the cross plan is seen in the building known as
Sanjakdar Mesjedi (p. 267), where a cross is placed within an octagon.
Probably the building was not originally a church. It resembles the
octagon near the Pantokrator (p. 270), and may, like it, have been a
library.
_Single Hall Churches._–The plans hitherto considered have all been
characterised by the presence of aisles, galleries, or other spaces
adjoining the central area. The churches of the present class consist
simply of an oblong hall, terminating in an apse, and either roofed in
wood, or covered with domes placed longitudinally, and resting to north
and south on wall arches. Examples of this plan are found in Monastir
Mesjedi (p. 264), S. Thekla (p. 211), Bogdan Serai (p. 284), and in the
memorial chapels attached to the Pantokrator (p. 235), and the Chora (p.
309). In the case of these two memorial chapels, their narrow,
long-stretched plan is evidently due to the desire to keep their eastern
apses in line with the east end of the churches they adjoin, and at the
same time to bring the western end to the narthex from which they were
entered. They are covered with two domes, a system perhaps derived from
S. Irene (p. 94). Kefelé Mesjedi (p. 257), which at first sight
resembles a single hall church roofed, in wood, was a refectory. Its
plan may be compared with that of the refectory at the monastery of S.
Luke at Stiris.[24]
II. ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES AND DETAILS
_Apses._–A fully developed Byzantine church terminated in three apses:
a large apse, with the bema or presbytery, in the centre; on the right,
the apse of the prothesis where the sacrament was prepared; on the left,
the apse of the diaconicon, where the sacred vessels were kept. Although
there is proof that the prothesis and the diaconicon were in use at a
very early period, yet many churches of the great period, as for example
S. John of the Studion, SS. Sergius and Bacchus, and S. Sophia,
dispensed with these chambers as distinct parts of the building. They
were also omitted in small churches of a late date, where they were
replaced by niches on either side of the bema. The three apses usually
project from the east wall of the church, but occasionally (p. 248) the
two lateral apses are sunk in the wall, and only the central apse shows
on the exterior. As a rule the apses are circular within and polygonal
without. It is rare to find them circular on both the interior and the
exterior (p. 203), and in Greece such a feature is generally an
indication of late date. An octagonal plan, in which three sides of the
octagon appear, sometimes with short returns to the wall, is the most
common; but in later churches polygons of more sides are used,
especially for the central apse, and these are often very irregularly
set out. Some of the churches of Constantinople show five, and even
seven sides.
_Bema._–The bema is rectangular, and sometimes has concave niches on
each side (p. 130). It is covered either with a barrel or with a
cross-groined vault, and communicates with the prothesis and the
diaconicon.
_Prothesis and Diaconicon._–These chambers are either square (p. 214)
or have a long limb to the east resembling a miniature bema (p. 214).
They are lower than the central apse and the cross arms, so that the
cruciform figure of the church shows clearly above them on the
exterior,[25] though in some churches with galleries small chapels
overlooking the bema are placed above them at the gallery level (S.
Theodosia). They have usually a niche on three sides, and are either
dome vaulted or have cross-groined vaults. The combination of a
cross-groined vault with four niches springing from the vaulting level
is particularly effective. In S. Saviour in the Chora (p. 307) these
chambers are covered with drum domes, pierced with windows, but this
treatment is quite exceptional.
_The Gynecaeum._–In the development of church building, the gynecaeum,
or gallery for women, tends to become less and less important. In S.
Sophia, S. Irene, and S. Theodosia, the gallery is a part of the
structure. In S. Mary Diaconissa (p. 185) it is reduced to four boxes at
the angles of the cross, while in S. Mary Pammakaristos and SS. Peter
and Mark it is absent (pp. 149, 193). But though no longer a structural
part of the church, a gynecaeum appears over the narthex in the latest
type of church (p. 215). It is generally vaulted in three bays,
corresponding to the three bays of the narthex below, and opens by three
arches into the centre cross arm of the church and into the aisles.
_The Narthex._–Unlike the gynecaeum, the narthex tends in later times
to become of greater importance, and to add a narthex was a favourite
method of increasing the size of a church. In basilican churches, like
S. John of the Studion, the narthex was a long hall in three bays
annexed to the west side of the building, and formed the east side of
the atrium. In domed cross churches with galleries the passage under the
western gallery was used as a narthex, being cut off from the central
area by the screen arcade which supported the gallery. Such a narthex
has been styled a ‘structural narthex,’ as forming an essential part of
the central building. It occurs in several of the churches of the city
(p. 114).
In domed cross churches without galleries, and in churches of the ‘four
column’ type, neither narthex nor gallery was possible within the cross,
and accordingly the narthex was added to the west end. It is usually in
three bays and opens into the aisles and central area. Frequently the
ends of the narthex terminate in shallow niches (p. 198). In many
churches a second narthex was added (p. 166) to the first, sometimes
projecting an additional bay at each end, and communicating with halls
or chapels on the north or south, or on both sides of the church (p.
128). S. Mark’s at Venice presents a fine example of such an extension
of the narthex.
When a church could not be sufficiently enlarged by additional
narthexes, a second church was built alongside the first, and both
churches were joined by a narthex which extended along the front of the
two buildings. S. Mary Panachrantos (p. 128) is a good example of how a
church could be thus enlarged from a simple square building into a maze
of passages and domes.
_The Interior._–The natural division, in height, of an early church,
whether basilican or domical, was into three stories–the ground level,
the gallery level, and the clearstory or vault level. In the West these
structural divisions were developed into the triple composition of
nave-arcade, triforium, and clearstory. In the East, in conjunction with
the dome, these divisions survive in many examples of the later period.
Still, Byzantine architecture was more concerned with spaces than with
lines. Large surfaces for marble, painting, or mosaic were of prime
importance, and with the disappearance of the gallery the string-course
marking the level of the gallery also tended to disappear. In churches
with galleries, like S. Theodosia (p. 170) and S. Mary Diaconissa (p.
185), the string-courses fulfil their function, the first marking the
gallery level, the second the springing of the vault. In SS. Peter and
Mark (p. 193), which has no gallery, there is only one string-course,
corresponding in level to the original gallery string-course;
accordingly the main arches are highly stilted above it. The absence of
the second string-course is a faulty development, for a string-course at
the vault level would be a functional member, whereas at the gallery
level it is meaningless.
In the Panachrantos (p. 130), as well as in other churches without a
gallery, the gallery string-course is omitted by a more logical
development, and the string-course at the springing of the vault is
retained. Openings which do not cut into the vault are then frankly
arched, without impost moulding of any kind. Simple vaulted halls,
narthexes, and passages have usually a string-course at the vaulting
level, broken round shallow pilasters as at the Chora, S. Theodosia, and
the Myrelaion. Sometimes the string-courses or the pilasters or both are
omitted, and their places are respectively taken by horizontal and
vertical bands. Decorative pilasters flush with the wall are employed in
the marble incrustation of S. Sophia.
In churches of the ‘four column’ type the full triple division is common
but with a change in purpose. A gallery in a church of this character is
not possible, for the piers between which the gallery was placed have
dwindled into single shafts. Hence the first string-course ceases to
mark a gallery level and becomes the abacus level of the dome columns,
as in the north and in the south churches of the Pantokrator. It is then
carried round the building, and forms the impost moulding of the side
arches in the bema and of the east window. Sometimes, however, it does
not extend round the bema and apse but is confined to the central part
of the church, as in the Myrelaion, S. Theodore, and the Pantepoptes. On
the other hand, in at least one case, the parecclesion of the
Pammakaristos, the central part of the chapel is designed in the usual
three tiers, but the apse and bema vaults spring from the lower or
abacus string-course, leaving a lunette in the dome arch above pierced
by a large window. A corresponding lunette at the west end opens into
the gynecaeum of the chapel. In S. John in Trullo the two
string-courses coalesce and the arches connecting the columns with the
walls cut into the stilted part of the dome arches, with the result that
all the structural arches and vaults spring from the same level.
[Illustration: FIG. 7. (Map of BYZANTINE CONSTANTINOPLE)]
_Arches._–Though the pointed arch was known and employed in cisterns,
as in the Cistern of the One Thousand and One Columns, Bin-bir-derek,
the circular arch is invariably found in work meant to be seen. The
difficulty attending this form, in which arches of unequal breadth do
not rise to the same height, was overcome, as in the West, by stilting,
that is, by raising the smaller arches on straight ‘legs’ to the
required height. The stilted arch, indeed, seems to have been admired
for its own sake, as we find it used almost universally both in vaulting
and in decorative arches even where it was not structurally required. In
windows and in the arches connecting the dome columns to the wall
stilting is sometimes carried to extremes.
_Domes._–The eastern dome of S. Irene, erected about 740 A.D., is
generally considered to be the first example of a dome built on a high
drum, though S. Sophia of Salonica, an earlier structure, has a low
imperfect drum. After this date the characteristics of the Byzantine
dome are the high drum divided by ribs or hollow segments on the
interior, polygonal on the exterior, and crowned by a cornice which is
arched over the windows.[26]
Drumless domes are sometimes found in the later churches, as in the
narthexes of the Panachrantos and S. Andrew, the angle domes of S.
Theodosia, and in Bogdan Serai. These are ribless hemispherical domes of
the type shown in Fig. 8, and are in all cases without windows. The
earlier system of piercing windows through the dome does not occur in
the later churches, though characteristic of Turkish work.
The three diagrams (Figs. 8, 9, and 10) illustrate the development of
the dome: firstly, the low saucer dome or dome-vault in which dome and
pendentives are part of the same spherical surface; secondly, the
hemispherical dome on pendentives; and thirdly, the hemispherical dome
with a drum interposed between it and the pendentives.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--THE SAUCER DOME OR DOME-VAULT.]
Flat external cornices on the dome are not uncommon in the later
churches of Byzantine Greece, as in S. Sophia at Monemvasia.[27] In
Constantinople only one dome with a flat cornice can be regarded as
original, that of S. John in Trullo, a church which is exceptional also
in other respects. The many other domes in the churches of
Constantinople on high drums and with flat cornices are Turkish either
in whole or in part. The high ribless domes of the Panachrantos, for
instance, circular in plan within and without, with square-headed
windows, plain stone sill, and flat cornice in moulded plaster, may be
regarded as typical Turkish drum-domes. As will appear in the sequel,
the dome over the north church of the Pantokrator and the domes of SS.
Peter and Mark, the Diaconissa, and S. Theodosia, are also Turkish.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--THE DOME ON PENDENTIVES.]
It is most unfortunate that the domes of these three domed cross
churches have been altered, especially as the domes of S. Mary
Diaconissa and S. Theodosia are larger than any of the later domes
except the large oval dome on the central church of the Pantokrator
which is almost of the same size. It is therefore now difficult to say
what was the precise form of the original domes. Most probably they were
polygonal drum-domes, and their collapse owing to their size may well
have led to the small drum-domes of later times. Though not strictly
Byzantine these Turkish domes are of interest as showing the development
of Byzantine forms under Turkish rule, and that reversion to the earlier
drumless dome which is so marked a feature of the imperial mosques of
the city.